Further Reading
adomnan; alba; colum cille; constantine; curetan; donnan; eilean i; hagiography; kentigern; printing; Boyle, Analecta Bollandiana 94.95—106; Carey, Studies in Irish Hagiography 49—62; Galbraith, 'The Sources of the Aberdeen Breviary'; Herbert & Ö Riain, Betha Adamnain 36—41; Macfarlane, William Elphinstone and the Kingdom of Scotland 1431— 1514 231—46; Macquarrie, Innes Review 37.3—24; Macquarrie, Records of the Scottish Church History Society 26.31—54; Macquarrie, Saints of Scotland esp. 6—10.
Thomas Owen Clancy
Aberffraw was the royal site of the kings of Gwyn-edd from the 7th century (or perhaps earlier) until 1282. It is situated in the south-west of the island of Anglesey (Mon) on the estuary of the river Ffraw. Aber 'river-mouth' (< Celtic *ad-ber-) is common in place-names in Brittany (Breizh) and Scotland (Alba)—in what used to be the country of the Picts— as well as elsewhere in Wales (Cymru). Today, the name (locally pronounced Berffro) designates a village, the bay onto which the estuary opens, and the bay's protected 'heritage coastline'. The population of the community of Aberffraw according to the 2001 Census was 1293, of which 876 inhabitants over the age of 3 could speak Welsh (69.2%).
§1. archaeology and history Excavations carried out in 1973 and 1974 were interpreted as a Roman fort of the later 1st century, with refortification in the 5th or 6th century. Anglesey was first invaded by the Romans under Paulinus in ad 60, as described by Tacitus. However, it could not be immediately garrisoned, owing to the military disaster of the revolt of BoudTca. Therefore, the Roman fort probably dates to the subsequent activities of Agricola, who was Roman Britain's governor in the
- Location of the early medieval royal site and cantref of Aberffraw
period c. ad 78-85. The post-Roman re-defence may reflect the arrival at the site of the court of Gwynedd's first dynasty, who claimed descent from the 5th-century hero Cunedda (Wledig) fab Edern. These early strata were heavily overlain by remains of medieval occupation attributable to the court of Gwynedd. That the site was already a royal centre in the 7th century is further indicated by the Latin commemorative inscription to king Cadfan (who died c. 625) at the nearby church at Llangadwaladr: catamanus rex sapientisimus opinatisimus omnium regum 'Cadfan wisest and most renowned of all kings'. The church itself bears the name of Cadfan's grandson Cadwaladr (f664), who also succeeded as king of Gwynedd.
Aberffraw remained a principal seat or the principal seat for Gwynedd's 'second dynasty', which came to power with the accession of Merfyn Frych in 825. Under the patronage of King Gruffudd ap Cynan (r. 1075-1137) or that of his son and successor Owain Gwynedd (r. 1137-70), a stone church was built with Romanesque features similar to 12th-century churches on the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela, Spain, and Clonmacnoise, Co. Offaly, Ireland. This church's chancel arch survives and is noteworthy as possessing the most elaborate stonework of any surviving example of its type from Wales, a reflection of the international importance of Aberffraw at the period. King Llywelyn ab Iorwerth (Llywelyn the Great, r. 1194-1240) used Tywysog Aberffraw ac Arglwydd Eryri 'Leader of Aberffraw and Lord of Snowdonia' as his official title.
Though there is evidence for Aberffraw as a centre of political power from the post-Roman Dark Age until 1282, Gwynedd's rulers are likely to have had more than one fortified residence, or to have moved their headquarters. For example, Maelgwn Gwynedd (f547)— who figures in the genealogies as Cunedda's great-grandson—is associated not with Aberffraw, but with the strategic fortified hilltop at Degannwy overlooking the northern mainland of Wales from the Conwy estuary. Excavations in 1993 revealed the 13th-century court at Rhosyr, south of Aberffraw (Johnstone, SC 33.25I-95).
By the time Edward I of England defeated Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, the last native ruler of Gwynedd, in 1282, Aberffraw was the name and seat of one of three territorial divisions in Anglesey: the 'hundred' or cantref of Aberffraw, which comprised two subdivisions or cymydau (commotes), Llifon to the north and Malltraeth, containing the royal site, in the south. After the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, the Aberffraw complex was systematically dismantled. In the time of Edward III (c. 1340-1), Aberffraw was recorded as a 'manor' held by the king's surgeon, Roger Hayton.
§2. literary references Aberffraw is first mentioned in what appears to be a contemporary poem, mourning the death of the 7th-century military leader Cynddylan. Surprisingly, as Cynddylan belonged to a dynasty of Powys, this elegy is addressed to an unnamed king of Gwynedd. The poet describes his crossing of the Menai Straits to Anglesey as a remarkable feat and urges the lord of Aberffraw to exert control as the legitimate ruler of land of Dogfeiling in north-east Wales against a rival dynasty from Powys whose line of rulers claimed descent from Cadell (see cadelling):
. . . to think of going to Menai, though I cannot swim! I love the one from Aberffraw who welcomes me, foremost offspring of Dogfeiling and terror to the descendants of Cadell . . .
In the Mabinogi, Aberffraw figures as the court at
- Detail of stonework from the surviving chancel arch of the 12th-century Romanesque church at Aberffraw
which the British princess Branwen marries Math-olwch, king of Ireland.
There are numerous references to Aberffraw both as a place and as a byword of royal authority and legitimacy in the works of the 12th- and 13th-century court poets who praised the rulers of Gwynedd (see gogyn-feirdd):
Yn llys Aberfraw, yr fa6 fodya6c, Bum o du gwledic yn lleithiga6c.
In the court of Aberffraw, in return for the praise of a successful one, I was at the side of the sovereign, on a throne. (1137, from 'The Elegy of Gruffudd ap Cynan' by Meilyr Brydydd; J. E. Caerwyn Williams et al., Gwaith Meilyr Brydydd 3.75-6);
Dyn yn vy6 ny veid y dreissya-, Du- vry am vrenhin Aberfra6.
No living man shall dare to oppress him, God above [shall be] on the side of the king of Aberffraw. (1215-18, from A Poem in Praise of God and Llywelyn ab Iorwerth' by Dafydd Benfras;
Costigan et al., Gwaith Dafydd Benfras 24.91-2);
Hil Gruffut waew rut, rotua-r eurlla.6, Hael uab Llywelyn, llyw Aberfra6.
From the line of Gruffudd of the bloody spear, with a generous, giving hand, generous son of Llywelyn, the ruler of Aberffraw. (c. 1277, 'Elegy of Owain Goch ap Gruffudd ap Llywelyn' by Bleddyn Fardd; Andrews et al., Gwaith Bleddyn Fardd 48.17-18);
Taleitha6c deifna6c dyfynyeith—Aberfra6, Terrwyn anreithyaw, ruthyr anoleith.
The crowned man of Aberffraw, fit to rule and wise in speech, fierce in plundering, unstoppable in attack. (1258, from A Poem in Praise of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd' by Llygad Gwr; Andrews et al., Gwaith Bleddyn Fardd 24.107-8).
further reading agricola; alba; bleddyn fardd; boudica; branwen; breizh; cadelling; cadfan; cadwaladr; cantref; cunedda; cymru; cynddylan; dafydd benfras; eryri;
aberffraw
gogynfeirdd; gruffudd ap cynan; gwynedd; llywelyn ab iorwerth; llywelyn ap gruffudd; mabinogi; maelgwn gwynedd; meilyr brydydd; merfyn; mon; owain gwynedd; picts; powys; tacitus; Andrews et al., Gwaith Bleddyn Fardd; Costigan et al., Gwaith Dafydd Benfras; Johnstone, SC 33.251—95; Gwilym T. Jones & Roberts, Enwau Lleoedd Mon / The Place-Names of Anglesey; Richards, Enwau Tir a Gwlad; White, BBCS 28.319—42; J. E. Caerwyn Williams et al., Gwaith Meilyr Brydydd.
Abertawe (Swansea) is a municipal, county and parliamentary borough and seaport located on the south coast of Wales (Cymru).
The origins of Swansea as a centre of population can be traced back to a small settlement of Scandinavian seafarers at the Tawe estuary known variously as Sweynessie, Sueinesea, and Sweinesei 'Sweyn's island'. The Welsh name Abertawe refers to the mouth of the river Tawe. (On the place-name element aber, see aberffraw.)
During the medieval period Swansea emerged as the commercial and administrative centre for the commote of Gwyr (English Gower). The town was located in a strategically important location, and during that period the economic potential of the river continued to be exploited. At the same time, Swansea's commercial importance as a fair and market town for a wide area increased, and during the 12th century it was accorded the status of a borough. During the 14th century the growth of the town and port was sustained and the castle was modernized, although, in common with other towns, Swansea witnessed devastation during the Owain Glyndwr rebellion and its population declined as a result of plague.
Following the Acts of Union (1536-43), Swansea became part of the county of Glamorgan (Morgannwg). The town's economic development continued through the increased trade in the port and the town's continued importance as a centre for local commerce.
However, it was the development of industry during the 18th century that led to Swansea's most rapid period of economic expansion. The town was easily accessed from the Cornish peninsula and, because of the ample supply of coal both within the borough and in its immediate vicinity, the lower Swansea valley emerged as a copper-smelting centre of international importance. Other industrial activity, such as the zinc industry, also developed. Moreover, Swansea, especially the townships to the east of the borough, became the centre of the tinplate industry, producing mainly for the export market.
As a result of industrial expansion, especially the growth of copper smelting and the tinplate trade, the development of Swansea as an international port continued. Although port facilities continued to be inadequate during the 18th century, considerable improvements were made between 1820 and 1914 which led to the construction of the North Dock and the South Dock to the west of the river Tawe and, later, the Prince of Wales Dock, the King's Dock and the Queen's Dock on its eastern side.
During the late 19th century Swansea's development as a commercial centre also grew apace. The town emerged as a major retail centre, and its importance in the metallurgical industries was reflected in the establishment of the Swansea Metal Exchange in 1887. The cultural and social development of the town also continued at this time. Swansea Grammar School, originally established in 1682, was reopened in 1852. The Royal Institution of South Wales, founded in 1835, provided a new dimension to the city's intellectual life and, later, the Glynn Vivian Art Gallery, opened in 1909, gave the town a new centre for visual art. Developments in technical education led to the establishment of a separate technical college in 1910 and Swansea also boasted a teacher training college. In 1920 Swansea became the home of the fourth constituent college of the University of Wales, which moved to Singleton Park in 1923. Singleton was also to become the largest of a number of impressive parks maintained by the corporation.
In common with other industrial towns, Swansea witnessed the effects of the depression of the inter-war years, especially in communities such as Morriston (Treforys), Llansamlet, Landore (Glandwr) and St Thomas which were reliant on heavy industry, although there were pockets of considerable affluence in the west of the town, maintained largely by Swansea's importance as an administrative, educational and commercial centre for south-west Wales. At the same time, effective use was made of government assistance to initiate major slum clearance schemes which led to the removal of many overcrowded and insanitary dwellings close to the town centre and the construction of municipal estates such as those at Townhill and Mayhill.
Swansea suffered extensive damage as a result of German enemy action during the Second World War. A large part of the town centre was completely destroyed, with considerable loss of life. The lengthy task of reconstruction after the devastation was undertaken at a time of immense social and economic change. The decline of the traditional structure of heavy industry, notably the closure of many small and medium-sized tinplate works and collieries, meant that the focus of those industries was now beyond the borough's limits although Swansea remained an important manufacturing base.
During the same period the drift of population outside of the city centre continued. The Borough Council built large municipal housing estates in areas such as Penlan and Clase and there was also significant private development in areas such as Sketty, Killay, and the Mumbles.
As part of the reconstruction of the city, major changes were made to the layout of the town centre, largely made possible by the demolition of damaged properties and some notable landmarks such as the Victorian railway station at the sea front and also the Weaver Mill, an architecturally-significant building of reinforced concrete. Their place was taken by ambitious developments such as the Quadrant shopping centre, the Swansea Leisure Centre, the Maritime Quarter and a large retail park, which were seen as important engines of economic regeneration.
Swansea's boundaries extended significantly during the 20th century. As a result of local government reorganization in 1974 the Gower peninsula (Gwyr)— a designated Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty— became absorbed within the new City of Swansea. In 1996 the boundaries were extended further to include a large part of the former Borough of Lliw Valley, an extremely controversial decision which brought about a significant change to Swansea's social, economic and linguistic profile.
Though predominantly English-speaking throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, Swansea's traditional position as the metropolis of the western industrial valleys of south Wales and areas of rural west Wales beyond has provided a linguistic network to support an established Welsh-speaking minority within neighbourhoods of the city itself. As a result, 'Swansea Welsh' is a recognizable dialect, characterized for example by the calediad or 'provection' of -b-, -d-, -g- preceding the last syllables of some words, thus creti for standard credu 'to believe'. Swansea Welsh forms a continuum with other southern and western regional dialects such as those of Llanelli, Llandeilo, Cwm Aman, Cwm Tawe, and Cwm Nedd. In contrast, the Welsh community of Cardiff (Caerdydd) has not been the home of a distinctive Welsh dialect, nor does Cardiff Welsh form a continuum with local forms surviving within its market area in the Rhondda or Merthyr Tudful. In the 2001 Census, the percentage of Welsh speakers in Greater Swansea was 45%. Higher concentrations in the Swansea region were recorded at Gwauncaegurwen (68%), Cwmllynfell (68%), Lower Brynaman (68%) and Ystalyfera (54%).
further reading aberffraw; acts of union; caerdydd; cymru; morgannwg; owain glyndwr; John Davies, History of Wales; Thomas, History of Swansea; Glanmor Williams, Swansea: an Illustrated History.
Robert Smith
Aberteifi (Cardigan) is a market town at the mouth of the river Teifi in the county of Ceredigion in west Wales (Cymru). Prior to 1993 Cardigan belonged to the larger county of Dyfed and prior to 1974 it
- South-west Wales, showing the locations of Abertawe/Swansea, Aberteifi/Cardigan, and Aberystwyth
was in Cardiganshire (sir Aberteifi), roughly the same territory as post-1993 Ceredigion. The 2001 Census reported 4203 inhabitants in the town of Cardigan, of whom 2410 or 59.5% were Welsh speakers.
The first Norman castle was built here in 1093. It suffered much destruction in the following century and changed ownership several times. After Lord Rhys ap Gruffudd of Deheubarth had finished the reconstruction of the castle in 1176 in order to set up his court there, the first recorded eisteddfod was held at the site. During the English Civil Wars (1642-9) the castle was destroyed. It was in the later Middle Ages, after the defeat of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, the last native Prince of Wales in 1282, that the town began to develop into an important seaport. The navigable Teifi estuary was attractive to traders, especially those from Ireland (Eriu), but not until the Tudor (Tudur) and Stuart period did coastal and foreign traffic increase appreciably. By the early Victorian period shipbuilding prospered, and in 1835 there were 275 ships registered at Cardigan employing 1,030 men. Subsequently, however, trade declined and Cardigan lost its cherished reputation as 'the Gateway to Wales'. Yet it remains a popular and attractive tourist and shopping centre.
The name of the town means 'river mouth of [the river] Teifi'. (On the Welsh place-name element aber, see aberffraw.) The river name is first attested in the Old Welsh spelling Tebi in the Welsh genealogies, and is probably related to the common element found in Taf, Thames, Tawe, &c.
further reading aberffraw; ceredigion; cymru; deheubarth; dyfed; eisteddfod; eriu; genealogies; llywelyn ap gruffudd; rhys ap gruffudd; Thames; tudur; Johnson, History of Cardigan Castle; Ieuan Gwynedd Jones, Aberystwyth 1277-1977; Lewis, Gateway to Wales.
Aberystwyth is an economic hub and cultural centre in the county of Ceredigion in west Wales (Cymru). Prior to 1993 Aberystwyth belonged to the larger county of Dyfed and prior to 1974 to Cardiganshire (sir Aberteifi), roughly the same territory as post-1993 Ceredigion. The 2001 Census reported 11,607 inhabitants within Aberystwyth itself and a further 2899 in the adjacent community of Llanbadarn Fawr and 1442 in Llanfarian. Within this 'greater
Aberystwyth', there were 6555 Welsh speakers, 43.8% of the population. The statistics are complicated by the transient student population and the area's popularity as a seaside holiday resort which contains numerous second homes.
Aberystwyth is the site of Llyfrgell Genedlaeth-ol Cymru (The National Library of Wales) and the University of Wales, Aberystwyth. It is also the location of the headquarters of several national Welsh organizations such as Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg (Welsh Language Society), Urdd Gobaith Cymru, Merched y Wawr (the national movement for the women of Wales), Cyngor Llyfrau Cymru (Welsh Books Council) and its book distribution centre, as well as several government offices for the county of Ceredigion. Two non-teaching units of the federal University of Wales are also based at Aberystwyth: Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru (The University of Wales Dictionary), which began publishing in 1950 (see dictionaries and grammars [4] welsh), and the Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies (Canolfan Uwchefrydiau Cymreig a Cheltaidd), which was established in 1985.
The modern town is situated at the mouths of the rivers Ystwyth and Rheidol, and has been occupied since the Mesolithic period (c. 6000 bc). The oldest archaeological finds come from the foot of Pendinas hill on the coast between the Rheidol and the Ystwyth. A large hill-fort was built on Pendinas in five stages in the last centuries bc, with the few datable items found there originating from the 2nd century bc. The Welsh name Pendinas means 'hill or headland of the fortified settlement' (though the usual present-day sense of dinas is 'city'). Although this hill-fort was abandoned during the Roman period, a few coins from the 4th century ad found in the Aberystwyth area indicate that there was a settlement and at least some economic activity on the site during the Roman period.
The foundation of the monastery of Llanbadarn Fawr is traditionally put in the 6th century. Originally a clas (enclosed monastic community of the native type), it was later transformed into a Benedictine monastery. It is generally agreed that Pendinas and Llanbadarn Fawr were important regional centres in north Ceredigion in ancient and early medieval times.
In the course of the Anglo-Norman conquest of Wales, a motte and bailey castle was built at the mouth of the river Ystwyth, and the destruction of this castle by Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd in 1143 is mentioned by Cynddelw Brydydd Mawr in Canu Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd (dated 1160-70). The present-day castle and town were officially founded in 1277 by Edmund, brother of Edward I of England, on a hill at the mouth of the Rheidol, and the old name of Llanbadarn Gaerog was replaced (Caerog signifies 'fortified', in contrast to the nearby monastery of Llanbadarn). In 1404 the castle was seized for a short period by Owain Glyndwr, and in 1649 it was finally destroyed by Oliver Cromwell's troops during the English Civil Wars (1642-9).
In the early modern period, Aberystwyth was an important fishing port and shipping centre for the export of lead ores mined in the Ystwyth valley. In the 19th century it was connected to the railway and grew into such a significant seaside resort that it became known as the 'Biarritz of Wales'. In 1872, the first constituent college of the University of Wales was founded here and established in a large hotel building on the seafront, now known as yr Hen Goleg 'the Old College'. In 1931 the National Library of Wales (founded in 1907) opened on its current site on Penglais Hill, overlooking the town. Aberystwyth has since developed into a thriving academic centre, which also plays a significant role in the economy of mid-Wales. It is widely recognized as an intellectual and cultural centre for Wales as a whole, and an urban stronghold of the Welsh language. However, it has thus far not developed into a major centre for Welsh broadcast media or national government.
Aberystwyth takes its name from the river Ystwyth, mentioned in Ptolemy's Geography (2nd century ad) as StouKKia /stukkia/. The second -k- is probably a scribal error for -t- /1/, and this consonant cluster would have been pronounced /ft/. Ystwyth occurs in Welsh as a common adjective meaning 'supple, bend-able'. The river name and its ancient form *stufti\ are probably ultimately this same word. (On the Welsh place-name element aber, see aberffraw.)
further reading aberffraw; ceredigion; cymdeithas yr iaith gymraeg; cymru; cynddelw; dictionaries and grammars [4] welsh; dyfed; hywel ab owain gwynedd; llanbadarn fawr; llyfrgell genedlaethol cymru; owain glyndwr; ptolemy; urdd gobaith cymru; welsh; J. L. Davies & Kirby, From the Earliest Times to the Coming of the Normans; Jenkins & Jones, Cardiganshire in Modern Times; Ieuan Gwynedd Jones, Aberystwyth 1277—1977; Parsons & Sims-Williams, Ptolemy.
Abnoba was the tutelary deity of the Black Forest in Germany, an area Roman legions identified as Mons Abnoba; from the eastern slopes of its mountains flow three streams that join to form the river Danube. A stone statue inscribed deae ABNOBA(e) , found at Mühlburg, depicts the goddess dressed as the Graeco-Roman goddess Diana touching a tree beneath which are a hound and a hare, Diana's attributes. A relief found at the source of the river Brigach includes images thought to represent Abnoba, her hare, a stag, and a bird. (For the ritual association of Celtic goddess and hare, see Andraste.) Inscriptions from Muhlbach and Rothenburg also preserve her name. A bronze 'indigenous Diana' in the Museum at Köln may represent Abnoba or Arduinna, the eponymous goddess of the Ardenne Forest.
primary sources pliny, Historia Naturalis 4.24; tacitus, Germania 1.2. inscriptions
DEANAE (or DIANAE) ABNOBAE, Mühlenbach, Germany, Museum für Urgeschichte at Freiburg: Orelli et al., Inscriptionum Latinarum no. 1986 = Brambach, Corpus Inscriptionum Rhenanarum no. 1683 = Filtzinger et al., Die Römer in Baden-Württemberg 264.
ABNOBAE, Rothenburg, Germany: Orelli et al., Inscriptionum Latinarum 351 n.3; Brambach, Corpus Inscriptionum Rhenanarum no. 1626.
inscribed images
DEAE ABNOBA(e) , Mühlburg, Germany, Museum at Karlsruhe: Espérandieu, Recueil général des bas-reliefs, statues et bustes de la Germanie romaine no. 345 = CIL 13, no. 6326 = Filtzinger et al., Die Römer in Baden-Württemberg fig. 145.
images
St. Georgen-Brigach, Germany, Museum at St. Georgen: Bittel et al., Die Kelten in Baden-Württemberg fig. 392. 'Indigenous Diana', Römisch-Germanischen Museums Köln, N 4257: Doppelfeld, Römer am Rhein.
'Diana' with hare, Germany, Rheinisches Landsmuseum at Trier no. 13689: Doppelfeld, Römer am Rhein.
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